Junior High School Level Lesson Plans

1. Understanding Culture and Ethnicity

Purpose: To lay a foundation for appreciating Caribbean heritage through an understanding of two key concepts.

Objectives: Students will:

1. Practice identifying specific components of culture and ethnicity.
2. Appreciate the difficulty in defining a group identity, even when they belong to the group.
3. Experiment with identifying the distinguishing aspects of a group of "others."
4. Exercise group interaction skills in variously sized groups and experience the effects of synthesizing information within a group setting.

Background:

Culture and ethnicity are two concepts that are important for understanding others--whether they be people of today's world or the first peoples of the Virgin Islands. Culture, or way of life, comprises all the practices and beliefs shared by members of a society, which are learned and passed on from one generation to the next. Ethnicity is ethnic identity, which defines the boundaries of group inclusiveness as it is perceived by group members themselves (with reference to any of a number of possible factors such as language, race, nationality, religion, economic level, or other aspects of culture). Different factors can be the basis of the ethnic identity of different groups.

In Caribbean prehistory, ethnicity poses difficult questions. Material culture can be archaeologically retrieved, at least partially, but beliefs are revealed only indirectly. It is the subtle clues within the artistic styles of artifacts, along with other symbolic emblems of group identity, that archaeologists must use to differentiate ethnic groups with similar cultures. Identification of ethnic boundaries in prehistory will always be conjectural and subject to modification as new information is presented.

One helpful way of looking at culture is to use the mnemonic device "LETS". LETS is derived from the first letters of major categories of cultural elements:

L: Language

E: Economic structure (food acquisition, trade, etc.)

T: Technological level of development (production and use of goods)

S: Social systems (marriage, politics, customs, beliefs)

This device encourages students to look beyond technology, which often comprises the most visible hallmarks of a culture. Ethnicity, also, may be defined on the basis of any LETS factors that apply to a social group's self-identity. (The LETS concept was contributed by archaeologist Dr. Jay B. Haviser, who has used it to help teach prehistory in Curaçao.)

Materials Needed:

Posterboard
Markers
Paper and pens/pencils

Procedure (for two or more class periods):

Poster 1: The School

1. As a class, discuss the elements of LETS.

2. Divide the class into small groups of 3 or 4 students to define the school in terms of LETS. Their focus should be aspects of identity particularly associated with the school, not the wider community.

3. Reconvene as a class and synthesize the small group information to form a class definition of the school in terms of LETS. Try to include examples of each LETS component.

4. Publish the definition in the form of a poster and display it in the room.

Poster 2: Parental Generation

5. Each student creates an interview sheet of at least 10 questions covering the LETS components and uses it to interview his/her parent (or guardian). Questions should concern practices or beliefs that may be distinctive from those of the students, such as music preferences or language expressions retained from the parent's youth.

6. Divided into medium-sized groups of 6 to 8, students compare their parent interviews and construct a LETS definition for the parent group.

7. As a class, synthesize the group information into a class definition of the parental generation.

8. Publish this information in a second poster and display it in the room.

Discussion: Compare the posters in terms of their relation to general Virgin Islands culture. Is one or the other more identifiable by distinct cultural elements? Are different cultural values exhibited by the two groups, perhaps providing evidence of the process of gradual cultural change? How do these groups differ from ethnic groups?

2. Ethnic Definition of the Taino People

Purpose: To approach the study of pre-Columbian peoples within a conceptual framework of culture and ethnicity, demonstrating the similarities as well as the differences between cultures of past and present.

This lesson is intended to build upon Lesson 1. The same concepts developed in Lesson 1, on the basis of familiar groups, are now applied to an unfamiliar pre-Columbian culture. The organization of research and data are the same, except that written sources and museum objects now take the place of the interview.

Objectives: Students will:

1. Identify and study specific aspects of Taino culture.
2. Identify and evaluate human cultural similarities, specifically considering similarities between indigenous and modern Virgin Islanders.
3. Exercise research skills.

Materials Needed:

Posterboard and markers
Student journals, notebooks, or paper and pens/pencils
Library or classroom sources about the Tainos (may need to be identified or assembled before this activity)

Procedure (for multiple class periods):

1. Divide the class into work groups. Each group is responsible for researching one or more of the aspects of LETS as they relate to the Tainos. (Refer to Lesson Plan 1 for an explanation of LETS. Because there is scant information about language, it may have to be combined with another aspect.)

2. Student groups compile a description of their aspect(s) of LETS for the Tainos during several library periods and, if possible, a museum visit.

3. As a class, combine all the group descriptions to form a LETS definition for the Tainos.

4. Publish this definition in a poster and display it in the classroom. If Lesson 1 was completed, three posters will be on display.

5. Have students study the three posters and draw conclusions about similarities among them. Students should write down their individual conclusions.

6. In an open class discussion, share student findings. Hypothesize as to why these similarities exist.

7. Students write a journal entry or an essay concerning what they have learned about ethnicity and culture, including such topics as any changes in their viewpoints of the school as a group, their parents' generation, and their connection to prehistoric peoples.

Extensions:

1. Research the peoples called "Caribs" during the Contact Period in the Antilles and compare their ethnicity with that of the Tainos.

2. Research other prehistoric peoples around the world in terms of their ethnicity. Construct LETS posters for each group.

Resources:

Some resources for more information are provided at the back of this booklet. Additionally, the Tainos appear in many encyclopedias. Teachers also may find it useful to create information sheets that can be distributed to students, from which the students might cull the material for their research groups.

Museum exhibits include:

Frederiksted: Fort Frederik Museum
Christiansted: Steeple Building, National Park Service
Charlotte Amalie: Fort Christian Museum
(Tip: When calling ahead, ask for a tour that covers some of the class's specific topics.)

Speakers who have volunteered to bring artifacts for classroom presentations include: Bruce Tilden, Curator at Fort Frederik, St. Croix.

Staff, Division for Archaeology & Historic Preservation, DPNR, St. Thomas.

Background Subjects:

Ball Games: The Tainos played a ball game for sport, wagering, and religious ritual. The solid ball of rubber (then unknown in Europe, from the gum of certain trees) had to be kept airborne without use of hands or feet, making the game both difficult and rough. Tainos believed that the outcome of the ball game reflected the balance of supernatural powers and thus it could predict a proper course of action.

The ball court or batey (bah-TAY) was a rectangle often lined on its long edges with upright stone slabs that might have figures of zemis cut into them. One such ball court existed at the Salt River site on St. Croix. Some courts or plazas of Puerto Rico also have smaller smooth stones laid around them like a sidewalk. Farther west, courts are lined with earthen embankments. Bateys have been found on St. Croix, Puerto Rico, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic/Haiti), Cuba, and the Bahamas.

Areytos: Some of the bateys or central plazas were also used for the Tainos' areytos (ah-RAY-toe). Areytos were song-dance performances that recounted the names of former leaders, primary beliefs, and past events. They were important as oral histories that preserved group knowledge. It is said that caciques reserved the authority to conduct areytos upon significant occasions, and sometimes they retained ownership of certain areyto songs.

Caciques: The Tainos apparently had different levels of caciques (cah-SEE-kay), or chiefs. Some were local, governing one village. Others were regional, with authority over people of many villages. The most important caciques lived in large towns with hundreds of houses. They could command great amounts of food and goods from their people. Large archaeological sites in Puerto Rico, with many ball courts, are thought to be the seats of regional caciques. There are no multi-court sites in the V.I., which probably were too small for a great chief but were important fishing grounds.

Family: Some researchers have concluded that Tainos traced their lineage through their mother's line, with the mother's brother wielding authority over a young person.

Language: From the small amount of recorded Taino language, linguists classify it in a large language family of South America called Arawakan. (This is roughly equivalent to the classification of English in the Germanic language family. Other languages in the Arawakan family are as different as English is from German, for example.) It is not clear, however, how many different dialects or languages may have existed within the area identified as Taino. It is possible that diverse groups were consolidated as the political power of individual caciques grew. A priest who was brought to Hispaniola by Columbus reported that the inhabitants of the northeastern part of that island differed from the rest in language as well as dress and other aspects. In any case, even if Taino was not the mother tongue of all peoples within the Taino area, it must have been universally known, as the basis for exchange of goods, intermarriage, and cultural similarities that result in the archaeological similarities seen throughout the Taino area.

Trade: The Tainos' prowess in traveling by dugout canoes ranging from small to enormous linked islands in exchange systems. On his first voyage, Columbus even found that the trinkets he traded traveled through the Bahamas faster than he did! One of the ways a cacique might advance wealth and power would be to obtain exotic goods unavailable in his province (such as golden guanín, special feathers, and salt). Tainos probably traded throughout the Caribbean and to the continents. More local exchange was also important in the economy, with settlements of the shoreline, for example, exchanging dried fish, sea turtle, manatee, seal, crocodile, and iguana for staples such as cassava, sweet potato, and corn that were cultivated in extensive inland fields.

3. Culture and Ethnicity Expressed in Material Objects:

Creating and Analyzing Culture Boxes

Purpose: To allow students to experience the archaeological basis for learning about cultures with no recorded history, by analyzing physical objects.

Objectives: Students will:

1. Describe and interpret modern "artifacts."
2. Relate the LETS components of cultures to material objects that reflect them.
3. Understand the difficulties of interpreting a culture from objects alone.

Materials Needed:

Magazines and newspapers for cut-outs
Scissors
Common small items (plastic spoon, pencil, nail, etc.)
Boxes
Paper and pens/pencils

Procedure (for two or more class periods):

1. Group students in cooperative work groups.

2. Student groups collect and/or cut out representations of present-day V.I. culture and place them in a box, including items related to all four LETS categories explained in Lesson 1.

Options: (1) The pictures or objects can be partial, adding some difficulty to their identification. (2) For additional intrigue, the items can relate to one specific context, such as a past event (e.g., Carnival), a particular location (e.g., an airport or hospital), or a segment of society (e.g., fishermen).

3. Students exchange boxes within class or with another class.

4. Student groups analyze the items in the new culture box, explaining or hypothesizing how each item reflects cultural practices and provides a clue to the LETS factors of V.I. culture.

Option: Have students record their observations on work sheets with three columns, labeled "Object," "Material it is made of," and "What it was used for (function)."

(If students were instructed to use option 2 of #2 above, they should also write down their conclusion or speculation about the specific cultural context that was represented.)

5. A representative of each group orally summarizes its interpretations of the objects. A representative of the group that created the box then compares those findings to the original intentions.

6. Select one culture box as the focus of a class discussion. Write the LETS categories on the chalkboard as column headings. Ask students to pretend that they exist 5000 years ago, when culture was entirely different. For each object, have students write on the chalkboard, in the appropriate column, any clue that the object provides about modern culture (as might be interpreted by the person 5000 years ago). (For example, a nail does not indicate the kinds of buildings we construct, but it shows that we have mass-produced metal-working.)

7. In a class discussion, evaluate the degree to which the ancient persons might have approximated an understanding of LETS factors of modern culture. Discuss the challenge of learning about events or cultures from physical objects alone, especially if the objects are not immediately identifiable.

4. The Archaeological Study of Material Objects:

Simulating a Dig

Purpose: To provide students hands-on experience with some of the methods and problems of archaeology, the source of information about peoples who lived before written history, and to reinforce basic knowledge of pre-Columbian culture in an active and interesting context.

Objectives: Students will:

1. Explore and explain the concepts and methods of archaeology.
2. Become familiar with material components of pre-Columbian indigenous culture.
3. Practice skills involved in measuring, plotting location, and making detailed observations.
4. Build vocabulary.

Materials Needed:

Area suitable to bury artifacts (approximately 6 ft. by 6 ft.)
Hand tools such as garden or masonry trowels
Yardstick or tape measure
Graph paper, pencils, ruler, and writing surface (clip board or piece of board)

Group 1 only:
Material to outline the site, such as string tied around 4 corner stakes
Materials to construct artifacts: clay, stones, wood, reeds, shells, etc.

Group 2 only:
Large brush and dustpan
Receptacle(s) for soil (tarp, wheelbarrow, or buckets)
Small bags; markers to label them
Brushes to clean soil off artifacts
Possibly water for washing, depending on type of soil involved

Procedure (for multiple class periods):

1. Two groups of students are identified: one to make and bury artifacts, the second to excavate and analyze them. (One class may be divided in half, or two teachers may cooperate to involve two classes, with each group both making artifacts and excavating the other group's artifacts. Alternatively, classes at different grade levels may be involved, with the older class making and burying the artifacts and the younger class excavating them.)

2. All students are provided an opportunity for first-hand examination of prehistoric artifacts (on a field trip to museums in Fort Christian or Fort Frederik, for example, or through a speaker who can bring examples to the classroom).

3. Students of the burying group (Group 1) construct replicas of pre-Columbian artifacts, using clay and durable natural materials. Some materials to represent cultural remains, such as seashells or fish bones, can be collected rather than made. The artifacts should be based on information about a particular culture or time period. (If the site excavation project is to be more complex, involving two layers of artifacts from different time periods, then two cultures will be represented in the replicas. This is not recommended for a first attempt, however.)

4. Group 1 buries its artifacts, mapping the "site" as it is created. The site should be a clearly outlined rectangle. Artifacts should be buried in clusters that facilitate an interpretation of their supposed function (as in the example of a plan drawing, which follows).

5. A second group of students (Group 2) excavates the site with hand tools, carefully scraping or brushing the soil or sand away in uniform layers across the site.

Before removal, encountered artifacts are mapped on graph paper by measuring their distance from two sides and reproducing that at a smaller scale on graph paper. (See the example that follows.)

Removed artifacts are immediately identified in some way with their mapped location and subsequently are cleaned. (Identification can be done by placing objects in numbered bags, or by numbering the actual items, depending on the material of the items. Item numbers should correspond to numbered map locations.)

6. The group of excavators (Group 2) hypothesizes about the identity and function of the artifacts, describing their attributes and looking especially for indirect evidence about aspects of culture beyond technology. Discuss how context helped the interpretation (that is, the position of artifacts within the site).

7. Students can be asked to submit Excavation Reports describing purpose, methods, finds, and conclusions.

8. The two student groups compare maps, as well as the intended and interpreted cultural functions of the artifacts.

Extensions: There are many math and science applications that can be incorporated into an excavation procedure. (Seashells, bones, soils, and rotting rates are a few of the topics that can be pursued further.) Metric system measurements can be used if desired. Bar graphs and pie charts can compare the numbers of finds by material type categories.

Resources:

The teacher can obtain more information to use in planning a mock excavation from agencies such as the DPNR Division for Archaeology and Historic Preservation (St. Thomas) and Fort Frederik Museum (St. Croix). The staff of these agencies may be able to identify a volunteer who has assisted with a real dig and who would be willing to visit the school for the mock dig.

Vocabulary:

Discussion Topics - Archaeological Ethics:

1. Is digging the primary concern of archaeologists?

As the students will have discovered in their exercise, excavation is only one part of what archaeologists do. Analysis of finds, publication of results, and preparation of artifacts for permanent curation usually take more time than actually digging. It would be irresponsible to remove objects from sites without this sort of follow-through.

2. What do professional archaeologists collect from sites besides artifacts?

Archaeologists use fine-mesh screens and many specialized techniques to retrieve the most information possible. For example, soils are studied for clues about the site's land use, microscopic pollen is analyzed to indicate past vegetation, and charred wood fragments are collected for identification and dating. It is important that students realize that their simulated dig to uncover objects was a very simplified version of what archaeologists do.

3. Why are there many local sites that have not been excavated?

The decision to excavate a site always involves the weighing of many factors. Some of the considerations include practical questions of funding and property ownership. Others involve identification of a facility to permanently care for the materials and data recovered. Even with those problems resolved, site excavation is not always desirable. If a site is not threatened with destruction, all or part of it should be left untouched for future researchers who will have better techniques than are known today. This consideration is balanced against the present need to obtain information necessary for interpreting and preserving the past.

4. How much are artifacts worth and who owns them?

Professional archaeologists are not interested in the monetary value of artifacts. To an archaeologist, a fragment of bone or charcoal, and records of its original location, might be "worth" just as much as an artistic object. Under current law, artifacts from sites on private property belong to the property owner. Artifacts from public lands or public projects belong to everyone and are protected by government laws. (Examples of public sites are Salt River Point on St. Croix, Magens Bay on St. Thomas, and Cinnamon Bay on St. John.)

5. What should students and others do if they discover an archaeological site?

People who encounter things that they suspect may represent an unknown archaeological site should contact a government archaeologist, who will be delighted to hear of new discoveries and to be able to offer assistance for the site's preservation. People should not dig into the site or collect its artifacts to show to the archaeologist because the archaeologist will learn much more by observing the objects in their undisturbed locations. Artifacts collected without good context information lose most of their informative value.

6. Is it important to save archaeological sites from destruction?

Lesson 4 Alternative:

The general focus of this activity is the same as described above, but it can

be accomplished in the classroom in one period (excluding preparation and follow-up).

The procedure below is an uncomplicated version for one "dig" prepared by the teacher using objects previously made and collected (perhaps by students). There are other possibilities for organizing student participation, such as identifying multiple groups within the class and having them each prepare a "dig" which is then "excavated" by one other group. See the vocabulary, discussion topics, and other notes on preceding pages.

Materials Needed:

Posterboard or very large paper such as 30" roll or sheets
Black marker
Items to represent artifacts and food remains
Masking tape
Yardstick or tape measure
Graph paper
Bags or tags (to identify items)
Paper and pens/pencils

Procedure:

1. Prepare a large piece of posterboard or paper: Mark a rectangular outline for the "dig" boundary near the edge of the paper, using a straight edge. Place small objects (representing artifacts and other remains) on the paper in meaningful clusters (using at least as many objects as students). Tape them down lightly. Place this on a table.

2. Let a group of students "excavate" one cluster, creating a scaled-down plan drawing on graph paper as they proceed. Each student measures the position of an object from two perpendicular sides, plots it on the group's plan drawing, removes the object, and identifies it with a number keyed to the drawing.

3. Let the group of students take its objects to another table to analyze. They should describe the items and offer possible explanations of their function and of their occurrence together in the "deposit."

4. Meanwhile, let another group "excavate" the next cluster of items. Continue until the "dig" is finished.

5. Ask student groups to turn in their plan drawings, Excavation Reports, and collections, allowing additional time for those who were last to excavate. Reports should include the purpose, methods, finds, and conclusions.

Example of an Excavation Plan Drawing

This hypothetical distribution might be interpreted as representing a cooking area (lower left) inside a possible structure (indicated by the curved line of post holes), a trash dumping area outside the structure (upper left), and a "cache" of ritual objects (nos. 8-11) such as might result from the disintegration of a woven bag or basket.

Required elements of the map: title, names, date, scale, N arrow, key, depths, soil description.

5. Settlement Areas of the First Caribbean Peoples:

A Map Activity

Purpose: To help students understand the pre-Columbian era as one of movement, change, and development, while reinforcing basic information.

Objectives: Students will:

1. Identify major groups of Amerindian peoples who populated the Caribbean in pre-Columbian times.
2. Show the migration routes and areas of expansion of these peoples.
3. Consider the processes of migration and expansion, including the effects of interactions between peoples of different cultures.

Materials Needed:

Procedure (one class session):

1. Each student receives two blank Caribbean maps (to include the northern portion of South America, the Yucatan Peninsula, and South Florida).

2. The teacher uses transparent maps of the Caribbean, on the overhead projector, to trace the migrations and areas of expansion, using a different color for each (see the maps in the Background section):

(a) Pre-Ceramic (or Archaic) peoples (5000 BC, reaching V.I. c. 1500 BC))
(b) Early Ceramic Age (Pre-Taino) migrations (beginning 500 BC; V.I. AD 200)
(c) Taino area (as of AD 1492)
(d) Island Carib movements (prior to AD 1492)

3. The students follow the teacher's example, marking their own maps as the teacher traces on the overhead, and labeling the movements with approximate dates relevant to the Virgin Islands.

Students can show (a) and (b) on the same map, visually illustrating how the Ceramic Age migrations probably impinged upon already established populations of pre-ceramic people.

Students can show (c) and (d) on the same map, illustrating how Tainos and Island Caribs both were expanding their territories during late prehistory and confronted each other in the northeastern Caribbean.

4. During or after the map exercise, the class discusses relevant topics such as those that follow.

Discussion Topics:

Approximately how many years ago are the dates depicted on the maps?
(Using rounded numbers, a: 7000, 3500; b: 2500, 1800, c and d: 500.)

How do we know about the peoples whose migration routes we have shown?
(Through archaeological procedures similar to those the students used in Lesson 4: careful excavations; comparing artifacts that may identify a group's movements from place to place; hypothesizing the functions of unknown artifacts from similar known objects.)

Why might people migrate into the Caribbean islands? Do the motivations differ for the prehistoric period and the historic period?
(Potential motivations include population expansion, resource depletion, wars or repression, desire for independence, individual desire for leadership or power, exploratory spirit.)

What factors distinguish these peoples from each other? (See the Background section of this booklet.)

What might have resulted when different peoples encountered each other?

Option: Assign this as a homework essay, allowing students to select two groups (a & b, or c & d) and to interweave imagined events with facts they have learned from their study of prehistory.

Geography Extension:

Ask students to label their maps using a provided list of the names of major islands, waterways, etc., before turning them in.

6. Experimenting With Prehistoric Design Elements

Purpose: To integrate the creative arts and social studies in developing appreciation for Caribbean heritage. (This activity would benefit from coordination between teachers in these subject areas.)

Objectives: Students will:

1. Explore the design layouts on painted pottery made by early Ceramic Age settlers in the Caribbean islands.
2. Create a painting that incorporates techniques observed in the prehistoric designs.

Background: The migration of pottery-making people from South America into the Antilles, beginning about 500 BC, is marked by archaeological sites containing fragments of a characteristic type of pottery that is well made with complex shapes, lustrous surfaces, and elaborate decoration. This was a highly sophisticated ceramic tradition with origins in tropical forest culture. It has come to be called Saladoid (SAL-a-doyd) because it was first defined from a site named Saladero on the Orinoco River in Venezuela. Saladoid-style artifacts were produced in the islands for approximately 1000 years.

An identifying characteristic of Saladoid pottery is painted designs executed in white on top of red. Typically a red paint was applied to a vessel's surface as an overall coating. Then a white paint was applied to form the design. One of the unique aspects of Saladoid painting, however, is that the white paint often was applied as the background area of a pattern, in contrast to the normal painting technique of adding figures to a background. Because the design paint was white, the result is not a true "negative" pattern (which reverses normal light and dark relationships), but it sometimes is called "false negative." (See examples below.)

Another technique that adds to the intricacy of patterns is the doubling of some of the outlines of motifs. In addition to the faces so common in Saladoid art, Saladoid pottery makes abundant use of repetitive curvilinear motifs in bands encircling the vessel. Complex patterns are built from simple motifs that are rotated, flipped, or inverted.

Materials Needed:

Paper and pencils, paints (not watercolor) and appropriate paper, brushes, and cleanup supplies.

Procedure (at least two class periods):

1. Students examine illustrations of Saladoid painted pottery and/or look for examples during a museum visit, discussing in class the techniques that provide its unique qualities.

2. Students lay out a Saladoid-style design with pencil and paper, utilizing (1) a large central motif to be "background painted" with double outlines and (2) upper and/or lower border bands composed of repetitive geometric motifs.

3. Students create a finished work with paint (using one light color on dark paper, or two colors if a dark overall coating is first applied as a background for a light-color design).

Extension: Students construct pottery vessels with modeling compound (oven or air-drying) using the coiling technique and later applying painted Saladoid-style designs.

7. Indigenous Word Game

Purpose: To promote familiarity and connection with indigenous cultures through language.

Objectives: Students will:

1. Learn about Taino and Island Carib words through seeing, writing, speaking, hearing, and kinetic activity.
2. Recognize indigenous words in modern vocabulary.
3. Reinforce their knowledge of elements of Taino and Island Carib culture.

Materials Needed:

Index cards (2 per student)
2 containers
Markers for students

Procedure (one class period):

1. Write selected indigenous vocabulary on the board.
2. Have each student choose a word and write it on an index card. Ensure that no two students have the same word.
3. Erase the words from the board; then write the definitions of the words on the board (or say them).
4. Have each student choose a definition and copy it on an index card, making sure that no two students have the same definition.
5. Place index cards in 2 containers (such as boxes or hats), one for each type of card.
6. Have each student pick a card from each container.
7. Have students wander the classroom, attempting to match vocabulary words with their definitions.
8. Review matches and correct as necessary.

Variation:

Have students sit in a circle after step 6. Give the command to "Pass a word left," then the command to "Pass a definition right." Alternate between the two at random. (With words circling left, and definitions circling right, students see many different words, and pairs will ultimately meet.) When at any time a student holds matching cards and recognizes them, he/she may leave the circle.

Extension: Have students write their own stories, set in a Taino or Island Carib village, using at least ten of the words.

Word List:

(The usual spelling of Taino words represents sounds as pronounced in Spanish. Accent marks are provided here for assistance in pronunciation; they need not be used in writing the words.)

Taino words that will be familiar because they have entered English:

canóa - canoe
huracán - hurricane
hamáca - hammock
cáyo - cay, island
tabáco - tobacco
casábi - cassava bread
barbacóa - barbecue
mahíz - maize (corn)
zabana - savannah

Taino words that students probably will encounter in reading about Tainos:

cacíque - chief
batéy - ball game or ball court
guanín - golden jewelry
aréyto (areíto) - song and dance ceremony
zemí - a sacred object, or the supernatural force it represents
cohóba - drug-based ritual to communicate with the spirit world

Taino words that may be least familiar:

yucayéque - village
caóna - gold
bohío - house
conúco - mound for planting crops
cóbo - conch
macána - wooden club
caréi - sea turtle
cóa - digging stick
turéy - sky
burén - ceramic cassava griddle
bágua - sea
dúho - ceremonial stool
cíbu - stone
nágua - woman's apron
behíque - shaman (healer)
guayacán - Lignumvitae tree
opía - spirits of the dead
guannába - soursop (Span.: guanábana)
nitaíno - person of high rank
yúca - cassava plant, manioc, yuca

Some Island Carib words (seventeenth century): (The spelling and pronunciation are as in French. Some words may have been influenced by other languages of the Contact Period, including African languages.)

carbet (silent 't')- men's house
matatou - serving basket
roucou - red plant dye (annato)
ouicou - a fermented manioc drink
maboya - evil spirits
maubi - another fermented drink
catoli - woman's rucksack
moushashe - cassava flour
oullaba - bow
caracoli - crescent-shaped golden jewelry
allouani - arrows
tebu - stone
hiehie - tree
oubekou -sky
anly - dog
watu - fire
balanna - sea
kunobu - rain
kueya - sun